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- In many societies, there are cultural mindsets that promote
different standards of empowerment between men and women.
- Males are expected to initiate relationships, whereas
sexual assertiveness in females is often stigmatized or
considered taboo.
- It is typical for women to marry or have sex with older
men, who most likely have been sexually active for a longer
period of time, hence have a higher probability of being
exposed to HIV infection.
- Some societies expect women to have one life-long sex
partner, whereas men are expected or even encouraged to
be more adventurous. As a result, women are usually more
monogamous compared to men. Reliance on monogamy can be
misleading for these women as it can only protect against
sexually transmitted diseases if their male counterparts
abide by the concept.
- In some countries, women are not even permitted to talk
about sex with their men, let alone negotiate safer sex
practice.
- Males' resistance to condom use due to concerns about
reduced sensitivity, ignorance regarding proper condom usage
and fear of permanent infertility, put women at greater
risk of HIV infection.
- Some countries employ age or gender-based statutory restrictions
regarding access to knowledge about sexuality, contraception
and disease preventions. As a result, young men and women
lack adequate information and learned-skills to protect
themselves against HIV/AIDS.
- Women are also vulnerable to threats of coerced sex (rape,
sexual abuse, forced prostitution) from family members as
well as outsiders.
- Cultures that enforce unsafe sexual activities such as
ritual intercourse with a male relative after the death
of a husband still exist. Traditional practices such as
female genital mutilation, ritual scarification, tattooing
and blood-letting using unhygienic utensils also multiply
the risks of infection among women.
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- Since the beginning of time, women have faced discrimination
in obtaining decent education, employment and social status,
which has contributed directly towards economic vulnerability
in fending off HIV/AIDS.
- Financial dependence on male partners creates a barrier
for women to negotiate safer sex practices.
- Some countries have laws that enforce women's economic
dependence on men (e.g. laws that only permit property ownership
and inheritance by men).
- Many women still rely on sex work for economic survival.
- War, famine, political oppression or poverty can result
in migration. The phenomenon can increase a woman's vulnerability
to HIV infection as she might get isolated from the familiar
community structures and at the same time, cannot communicate
effectively with the locals.
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- Women have larger mucosal surface area, which can pose
more probability for exposure to the virus.
- Virus concentration in semen is relatively higher than
in vaginal fluids.
- Immature cervix and low vaginal mucous production offer
less protection for young women.
- Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
that can cause ulcerative lesions encourage transmission
of HIV. However, women with STDs are often without symptoms,
which makes them less likely to seek treatment.
- Statistically women, as compared to men, do require more
frequent blood transfusions for incidents such as childbirth
complications or conditions such as anemia.
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- Women are often stigmatized and blamed for causing HIV
and other STD infections, when in fact the transmission
rate from men to women is 3 or 4 times higher than vice
versa.
- HIV positive women are often thought to be promiscuous,
when in fact 90% of HIV positive women caught the virus
from their husbands.
- Discrimination against women who are perceived to be at
risk of HIV infection has resulted in termination of employment,
denial of health insurance and subsequently divorce, abandonment
as well as separation from children and family members.
- HIV positive women are sometimes pressured not to become
pregnant or to get sterilized and, if they are already pregnant,
to abort the conceived baby.
- Most societies rely on women to be the voluntary caregivers
of the family, as well as occupational caregivers for the
community. This increases pressure on women, especially
HIV positive women.
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